Icap past papers
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Second, the peak age of onset of offending is between 8 and 14, and the peak age of desistance from offending is between 20 and 29.
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(For references, see Farrington and Loeber 2013.) First, the prevalence of offending peaks in the late teenage years – between ages 15 and 19. There are ten widely accepted conclusions about the development of offending that any DLC theory must be able to explain. (For reviews of all these studies, see Farrington 2013.) What Do We Know? Other important longitudinal projects that came to prominence in the 1990s were the Seattle Social Development Project, the Dunedin study in New Zealand, the Montreal Longitudinal-Experimental study, and the further analyses by Laub and Sampson of the classic study by the Gluecks. Particularly influential were the three “Causes and Correlates” studies originally mounted by the US Office of Juvenile Justice and Delinquency Prevention in Denver, Pittsburgh, and Rochester. The main reason why developmental and life-course criminology became important during the 1990s was because of the enormous volume and significance of longitudinal research on offending that was published during this decade. I have directed the Cambridge Study in Delinquent Development, which is a prospective longitudinal survey of over 400 London males from age 8 to age 56 (Farrington et al. In conducting research on development, risk and protective factors, life events, and DLC theories, it is essential to carry out prospective longitudinal surveys. To what extent they apply to other types of persons (e.g., middle-class rural females) or offenses (e.g., white-collar crimes or sex offenses against children) are important empirical questions that cannot be addressed here. Generally, DLC findings and theories particularly apply to offending by lower-class urban males in developed countries in the last 80 years or so. These theories aim to explain results on offending obtained with both official records and self-reports. “Offending” refers to the most common crimes of theft, burglary, robbery, violence, vandalism, minor fraud, and drug use and to behavior that in principle might lead to a conviction in Western industrialized societies such as the United States and the United Kingdom. Whereas traditional criminological theories aimed to explain between-individual differences in offending, such as why lower-class males commit more offenses than upper-class males, DLC theories aim to explain within-individual changes in offending over time, such as why males commit more offenses when they are unemployed than when they are employed.ĭLC theories aim to explain offending by individuals (e.g., as opposed to crime rates of areas). Developmental And Life-Course Theoriesĭevelopmental and life-course criminology (DLC) is concerned mainly with three topics: (a) the development of offending and antisocial behavior from the womb to the tomb (b) the influence of risk and protective factors at different ages and (c) the effects of life events on the course of development (Farrington 2003). Tests of the ICAP theory and its research and policy implications are described. It also specifies the cognitive processes that influence whether the antisocial potential becomes the actuality of offending in any situation and the consequences of offending that have feedback influences on antisocial potential. The ICAP theory specifies the risk and protective factors that influence the development of long-term antisocial potential (varying between individuals) and the situational factors that influence short-term antisocial potential (varying within individuals over time). Developmental and life-course criminology (DLC) focuses on the development of offending and antisocial behavior, risk and protective factors, and the effects of life events.